Artigo Original
EPIDEMIOLOGICAL PROFILE OF DEATHS RESULTING FROM POLICE INTERVENTION AND ANALYSIS OF POLICE LETHALITY IN BRAZIL IN 2023
Como citar: Fantin JV, Guédes RP, Leite JRHA. Perfil epidemiológico das mortes decorrentes de intervenção policial e análise da letalidade policial no Brasil em 2023. Persp Med Legal Pericia Med. Vol. 10, 2025; 250309.
https://dx.doi.org/10.47005/250309
Recebido em 16/01/2025
Aceito em 24/12/2025
The authors report no conflict of interest.
EPIDEMIOLOGICAL PROFILE OF DEATHS RESULTING FROM POLICE INTERVENTION AND ANALYSIS OF POLICE LETHALITY IN BRAZIL IN 2023
Resumo
INTRODUÇÃO: As mortes decorrentes de intervenção policial (MDIP) são um reflexo da letalidade policial, relacionando-se com políticas públicas de segurança. Dessa maneira, estabeleceu-se como objetivos construir o perfil epidemiológico das MDIP no Brasil em 2023, além de analisar a letalidade policial no mesmo ano. MATERIAL E MÉTODO: Coletou-se dados no Fórum Brasileiro de Segurança Pública e realizou-se caracterização epidemiológica geográfica e sociodemográfica das MDIP. Ademais, utilizou-se indicadores para análise da letalidade policial. RESULTADOS: O Brasil, em 2023, apresentou 6.393 de mortes decorrentes de intervenção policial. Nacionalmente, observou-se predominância em homens (99,3%), na faixa etária de 18 a 24 anos (41,5%) e negros (82,7%). Os estados da Bahia e Amapá, respectivamente, apresentaram o maior número absoluto e taxa de óbitos advindos da ação policial. Os indicadores calculados apresentaram-se, nacionalmente, com grande variedade de resultados. Constatou-se 51,1 civis mortos para cada óbito policial e percentual de contribuição de óbitos decorrentes de intervenção policial no total de homicídios dolosos de 16,8%. DISCUSSÃO: Óbitos decorrentes de ação policial no Brasil são significativos em comparação a outros países. O perfil sociodemográfico infere ação policial desproporcional em homens jovens negros, sugerindo influência de aspectos sociais na atuação policial. Os indicadores de letalidade policial mostraram-se elevados, para o Brasil e majoritárias unidades da federação, em comparação com índices recomendáveis. CONCLUSÃO: A violência policial no Brasil é elevada. Características sociodemográficas da população impactam na imparcialidade da atuação policial. Há grande disparidade de intensidade e territorial da letalidade policial.
Palavras Chave: Perfil Epidemiológico, Letalidade, Poder de Polícia.
Abstract
INTRODUCTION: Deaths resulting from police intervention (MDIP) are a reflection of police lethality, relating to public security policies. Thus, the objectives established were to build the epidemiological profile of MDIP in Brazil in 2023, in addition to analyzing police lethality in the same year. MATERIAL AND METHOD: Data were collected at the Brazilian Public Security Forum and an epidemiological, geographic and sociodemographic characterization of MDIP was carried out. In addition, indicators were used to analyze police lethality. RESULTS: Brazil, in 2023, had 6,393 deaths resulting from police intervention. Nationally, there was a predominance of men (99.3%), in the age group of 18 to 24 years (41.5%) and black people (82.7%). The states of Bahia and Amapá, respectively, had the highest absolute number and rate of deaths resulting from police action. The calculated indicators presented a wide variety of results nationwide. It was found that there were 51.1 civilian deaths for each police death and that the percentage of deaths resulting from police intervention in the total number of intentional homicides was 16.8%. DISCUSSION: Deaths resulting from police action in Brazil are significant compared to other countries. The sociodemographic profile infers disproportionate police action against young black men, suggesting the influence of social aspects on police action. The indicators of police lethality were high for Brazil and most states, compared to recommended rates. CONCLUSION: Police violence in Brazil is high. Sociodemographic characteristics of the population impact the impartiality of police action. There is a great disparity in the intensity and territoriality of national police lethality.
Keywords (MeSH): Health Profile, Mortalities, Police Power.
1. INTRODUCTION
Criminology has considerations about the practical feasibility of quantifying absolute data on homicides in general, however, measuring deaths resulting specifically from the actions of state public security agents is challenging (1). In this sense, measuring police lethality is pertinent, since it relates to deaths resulting from direct intervention by police forces, in addition to reflecting the implementation of public security policies by the State apparatus (2).
In Brazil, the repercussions of illegitimate practices of violence by the State gained relevance in the public debate from the military period onwards and have remained significant ever since (3). In this context, police lethality, characterized by mortality resulting from the actions of auxiliary public security forces, is one of the manifestations of State violence, which remains active and persistent, even in atypical periods, such as the Covid-19 pandemic (4).
In this context, the systematic production and use of criminal statistics in the Brazilian State, despite its long history of existence, dating back to the end of the 19th century, has not, however, converged in the establishment of bureaucratically rationalized and coordinated procedures, so that the production of police data, currently, is marked by its genesis in distinct and disjointed state agencies responsible for public security (5). In this way, a scenario of precariousness was created in the statistical production of public police data disclosed nationally (6).
In confluence, the bibliographic production referring to police lethality has traditionally been prepared using theoretical perspectives as a basis, without necessarily having methodological and technical support based on empirical research (7).
In this scenario, the emergence of quantitative studies is significant in the instance in which they allow the introduction of new perspectives in the evaluation of police lethality, mainly through the use of new approaches and identification of aspects, which were not correctly evidenced due to the lack of empirical consistency in the prevailing theoretical-scientific framework (2).
Thus, considering the relevance of police lethality in the context of the public security debate, in parallel with the limitations of access to information and reservations regarding the methodologies traditionally used in studies, the proposed objectives are the construction of the epidemiological profile of deaths resulting from police intervention (MDIP), as well as the development of analyses of national police lethality in the year 2023.
2. MATERIAL AND METHOD
This is a descriptive, cross-sectional epidemiological study on deaths resulting from police intervention in Brazil in 2023, in addition to an analysis of police lethality. All data were collected, based on public availability and free access to data, from the Brazilian Public Security Yearbook 2024 (8), which brings together public public security data from the Brazilian Public Security Forum (FBSP) (9).
The data available by the FBSP is linked to the State Secretariats of Public Security and/or Social Defense; Institute of Public Security/RJ (ISP); Public Ministry of
Acre; 2022 Census – IBGE and Brazilian Public Security Forum.
A collection of quantitative data available in the Brazilian Public Security Yearbook was carried out. These were inserted into Microsoft Excel® and Microsoft Word® software and organized into graphs and tables, in addition to calculating indicators.
For the geographic epidemiological characterization, within the scope of the federative units and nationally, of deaths resulting from police intervention, the following variables were defined: absolute number and rate (MDIP/100,000 inhabitants). Regarding the sociodemographic description, on a national scale, the following variables were selected: sex, age group and race/color.
As this is a descriptive census epidemiological characterization, inferential analysis of the data was not required, and they were presented using absolute and percentage values.
To construct the analysis of police lethality, at the national level and in the states of the federation, the calculation of indicators of police lethality was carried out (10, 11). The indicators used were:
- Proportion of civilians and police officers killed in police action: Ratio of civilian victims killed and the number of police officers killed in police action. In cases where the number of police deaths was zero, the indicator acquired the value of the total number of civilian deaths, as adopted in a similar study (11).
- Proportion of deaths caused by police action and intentional homicides: Percentage of deaths due to police action in relation to the total number of intentional homicides.
For police victimization, the number of active police officers killed in confrontations or due to unnatural injuries (homicides, robberies and/or bodily harm resulting in death) was considered, discarding cases of traffic accidents and suicide (8).
Since this was a study that used publicly accessible information under Law No. 12,527/2011 (Access to Information Law), the opinion of the Research Ethics Committee was waived, under Resolution No. 510/2016 of the National Health Council.
3. RESULTS
In 2023, a total of 6,393 deaths resulting from police intervention were recorded in Brazil. In absolute terms, the state of Bahia recorded the highest number of victims, with 1,699 deaths. The state of Rondônia had the lowest number of deaths, with 9 records.
Regarding the rate of deaths due to police action, it was found that the national rate was 3.2. In the constant evaluation within the federative units, the state of Amapá had the highest rate, of 23.6, while the state of Rondônia recorded the lowest rate, of 0.6. Table 1 presents the absolute data and rate of deaths resulting from police action nationally and in the federative units.
| Country and Federation Unit | N | % | Rate |
| Brazil | 6.393 | 100 | 3.2 |
| Bahia | 1,699 | 26.58 | 12.0 |
| Rio de Janeiro | 871 | 13.62 | 0.8 |
| Pará | 525 | 8.21 | 6.5 |
| Goiás | 517 | 8.09 | 7.3 |
| São Paulo | 504 | 7.88 | 1.1 |
| Paraná | 341 | 5.33 | 3.0 |
| Sergipe | 229 | 3.58 | 10.4 |
| Mato Grosso | 223 | 3.49 | 6.1 |
| Amapá | 173 | 2.71 | 23.6 |
| Rio Grande do Sul | 149 | 2.33 | 1.4 |
| Ceará | 142 | 2.22 | 1.6 |
| Minas Gerais | 136 | 2.13 | 0.7 |
| Mato Grosso do Sul | 133 | 2.08 | 4.8 |
| Pernambuco | 120 | 1.88 | 1.3 |
| Rio Grande do Norte | 92 | 1.44 | 2.8 |
| Santa Catarina | 79 | 1.24 | 1.0 |
| Paraiba | 72 | 1.13 | 6.5 |
| Alagoas | 69 | 1.08 | 2.2 |
| Espírito Santo | 65 | 1.02 | 1.7 |
| Maranhao | 62 | 0.97 | 0.9 |
| Amazonas | 59 | 0.92 | 1.5 |
| Tocantins | 43 | 0.67 | 2.8 |
| Distrito Federal | 27 | 0.42 | 1.0 |
| Piauí | 25 | 0.39 | 0.8 |
| Acre | 15 | 0.23 | 1.8 |
| Roraima | 14 | 0.22 | 2.2 |
| Rondônia | 9 | 0.14 | 0.6 |
Tab. 1: Absolute number and rate of deaths resulting from police intervention nationally and by federation unit in 2023. Source: FBSP (2024).
The sociodemographic epidemiological characterization, regarding sex, age group, color/race of the victims is described in graphs 1 to 3.
Graph. 1: Deaths resulting from police intervention in Brazil in 2023, according to the sex of the victims. Source: FBSP (2024).
Graph. 2: Deaths resulting from police intervention in Brazil in 2023, according to the age group of the victims. Source: FBSP (2024).
Graph. 3: Deaths resulting from police intervention in Brazil in 2023, according to the race/color of the victims. Source: FBSP (2024).
The indicators of police lethality in Brazil, in 2023, are presented in tables 2 and 3.
| Country and Federation Unit | MDIP (N) | Police victimization (N) | Proportion of civilians and police officers killed in
police action |
| Brazil | 6.393 | 127 | 51.1 |
| Sergipe | 229 | 1 | 210.0 |
| Paraná | 341 | 2 | 205.5 |
| Goiás | 517 | 3 | 188.0 |
| Amapá | 173 | 0 | 173 |
| Bahia | 1,699 | 9 | 148.3 |
| Mato Grosso do Sul | 133 | 0 | 133 |
| Rio de Janeiro | 871 | 11 | 123.3 |
| Minas Gerais | 136 | 1 | 116.0 |
| Santa Catarina | 79 | 0 | 79 |
| Espírito Santo | 65 | 0 | 65 |
| Rio Grande do Norte | 92 | 3 | 50.7 |
| Tocantins | 43 | 0 | 43 |
| Rio Grande do Sul | 149 | 4 | 39.0 |
| Mato Grosso | 223 | 3 | 34.0 |
| Alagoas | 69 | 2 | 32.5 |
| Pará | 525 | 20 | 27.4 |
| Paraiba | 72 | 2 | 25.5 |
| São Paulo | 504 | 28 | 20.4 |
| Maranhao | 62 | 5 | 17.6 |
| Piauí | 25 | 2 | 17.0 |
| Acre | 15 | 0 | 15 |
| Ceará | 142 | 9 | 13.2 |
| Amazonas | 59 | 8 | 12.6 |
| Rondônia | 9 | 1 | 9.0 |
| Pernambuco | 120 | 12 | 8.7 |
| Distrito Federal | 27 | 1 | 7.0 |
| Roraima | 14 | No data | No data |
Table 2: Proportion of civilians and police officers killed in police action nationally and by federation unit, in 2023. Source: FBSP (2024).
| Country and Federation Unit | MDIP (N) | Intentional homicide (N) | Proportion of deaths caused by police action and intentional homicides (%) |
| Brazil | 6,493 | 3.8595 | 16.8% |
| Goias | 564 | 1,049 | 53.8% |
| Amapá | 156 | 311 | 50.2% |
| Sergipe | 210 | 450 | 46.7% |
| Rio de Janeiro | 1356 | 3.293 | 41.2% |
| Bahia | 1335 | 4,729 | 28.2% |
| Pará | 548 | 2.052 | 26.7% |
| Paraná | 411 | 1,837 | 22.4% |
| São Paulo | 570 | 2,728 | 20.9% |
| Rio Grande do Norte | 152 | 842 | 18.1% |
| Tocantins | 47 | 380 | 12.4% |
| Santa Catarina | 70 | 572 | 12.2% |
| Mato Grosso do Sul | 53 | 448 | 11.8% |
| Mato Grosso | 102 | 919 | 11.1% |
| Rio Grande do Sul | 156 | 1,739 | 9.0% |
| Amazonas | 101 | 1,276 | 7.9% |
| Roraima | 9 | 147 | 6.1% |
| Acre | 11 | 190 | 5.8% |
| Alagoas | 65 | 1.114 | 5.8% |
| Paraiba | 51 | 967 | 5.3% |
| Espírito Santo | 49 | 976 | 5.0% |
| Maranhao | 88 | 1,767 | 5.0% |
| Piauí | 34 | 677 | 5.0% |
| Ceará | 119 | 2.935 | 4.1% |
| Minas Gerais | 116 | 2,946 | 3.9% |
| Pernambuco | 104 | 3,528 | 2.9% |
| Distrito Federal | 7 | 266 | 2.6% |
| Rondônia | 9 | 457 | 2.0% |
Table 3: Proportion of deaths caused by police action and intentional homicides nationally and by federation unit in 2023. Source: FBSP (2024).
4. DISCUSSION
The absolute number of deaths resulting from national police interventions highlights Brazil as a leader compared to other Latin American countries. However, the assessment using the MDIP rate per 100,000 inhabitants indicates that other Latin nations, such as Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago, exceed the Brazilian rates, despite the existence of countries with significantly lower rates, such as El Salvador and Colombia (12).
At the national level, the state of Bahia stands out accounting for approximately 26% of all MDIPs, despite its population representing only 7% of the Brazilian population (13). However, when analyzing the states according to the rate, Amapá clearly stands out. Its rate of 23.6 is almost double that of the state with the second highest rate, Bahia, with 12.0.
Furthermore, the rate in Amapá is also approximately 7 times higher than the national rate, so that it even transcends the rate of countries with a strong authoritarian tradition and violent policies, such as Venezuela (14), which recorded a mortality rate resulting from police action of 16.6 per 100,000 inhabitants in 2018 (15).
The majority of male victims are in line with findings from other studies (16, 17) with similar percentages and above 96%. Furthermore, regarding the age range of victims of police violence nationwide, the results reveal that approximately 71.7% of the total are between 12 and 29 years old, highlighting young people as the main victims of police violence, corroborating the literature (18, 19). A study (20) analyzed 316 police reports in the city of São Paulo in 2012 and subsequent analysis of resulting legal proceedings showed that young people were the majority of victims of police violence, with an average age of 24 years.
The results of this study regarding the race/color of victims of police violence showed a wide variety of representation among the groups, with a clear higher incidence among blacks when compared to whites, with Asians and indigenous peoples having a non-significant incidence. The racial disproportionality in Brazilian police lethality, however, is not an isolated phenomenon, since minorities are disproportionately impacted by excessive state military force in different countries around the world. (21, 22).
Police selectivity based on race/color is a phenomenon well described in international literature (23, 24), as well as in Brazilian literature (25, 26). A historical series analysis (23) of the United States territory from 2013 to 2021 showed the existence of a greater proportion of victimization of black people in relation to their share of the total population, so that, although black people make up 12% of American society, they represent 20% of victims.
Another study (24), which used data obtained from drivers in Kansas City, concluded that racial aspects interfered in vehicle stops, with unequal treatment and conduct towards black drivers by security agents. The authors also found that several controversial armed confrontations involving police officers and police forces occurred in the context of the stops described.
At a national level, a survey (25) about personal experiences and perceptions of young black men and women living in socially vulnerable neighborhoods with high rates of violence in the cities of Salvador, Recife and Fortaleza revealed markedly racist tendencies in police action. Another study (26) based on research carried out in the federative units of Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais, found higher rates of black people killed compared to white people in police actions under the same circumstances.
Related to police lethality in Brazil and in the states of the federation, the indicator Proportion of civilians and police officers killed in police action is important in scenarios of constant police actions with risk to security agents (11). The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), in the United States, accepts a rate of 12 civilians killed for every police officer killed (16).
However, another study (27) infers that a rate higher than 15 live deaths for every police death indicates that the lethal force used by state agents is being used for a purpose other than protecting life.
Graph. 4: Federative units that have the indicator Proportion of civilians and police officers killed in police action above or in line with the recommended rates (16, 27). The state of Roraima was not included in the analysis due to unavailability of data. Source: FBSP (2024).
Thus, it is notable that the majority of Brazilian states have this indicator above the rates recommended by the literature (16, 27). However, it is important to highlight that this indicator considers that police victimization occurred in confrontational situations, although it must be considered that approximately 70% of deaths of Brazilian police officers occur outside of working hours, generally while performing private extra-official work, the so-called “side jobs” (28).
In this scenario, it was recorded that civil police officers, working outside their official duties and working hours, are 2.5 to 5 times more likely to be murdered (28). Because it is an illegal activity, police officers killed in circumstances outside their official duties are not included in the official data (8).
The second indicator of police lethality, Proportion of deaths caused by police action and intentional homicides, in percentage terms, is significant in the assessment of the use of lethal force, however, it should not be analyzed in isolation as it does not have a defined index to establish acceptable or unacceptable standards (11). Despite this, it is possible to compare the results of Brazil and the states of the federation with values found in other countries, such as the United States, which presented an index of 3.6% (11).
Graph 5: Comparison of the indicator Proportion of deaths caused by police action and intentional homicides for Brazil and the United States. Source: FBSP (2024); Lonche (2010).
Graph 6: Comparison of the indicator Proportion of deaths caused by police action and intentional homicides for the federation units of Brazil and the United States. Source: FBSP (2024); Lonche (2010).
Thus, at a national level, there is a high percentage of homicides resulting from police action in relation to the total number of intentional homicides nationwide, approximately 4.5 times higher than that recorded in the United States.
In the domestic scenario, the results reveal a great disparity between the states of the federation, given the large difference of over 50 percentage points between the state with the highest value for the indicator, Goiás (53.8%), and the one with the lowest value, Rondônia (2.0%). It is also noted that only three states of the federation, Rondônia, Distrito Federal and Pernambuco, recorded values lower than the US comparison index.
5. CONCLUSION
Thus, it is clear that police violence in Brazil is significantly high compared to other nations. Deaths resulting from police intervention in Brazil have predominantly male, young victims and with a clear predominance in relation to race/color, with black citizens being disproportionately impacted.
Indicators suggest a highly heterogeneous geographic distribution of police violence across the different states of the federation, so that, despite the few cases in which the indicators are within acceptable levels, a scenario of significant police lethality prevails throughout the country. Together, these factors are the pillars of Brazilian public security, in terms of the civilian impact resulting from the actions of state agents, which is geographically heterogeneous and sociodemographically disproportionate.
References
1 Sherman LW, Langworthy RH. Measuring homicide by police officers. J Crim Law Criminol [Internet]. 1979 Winter;70(4): p. 546-560. Available from: https://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6148&context=jclc
2 Monteiro L, Pedrosa JL Jr. Letalidade policial no Brasil: uma revisão da literatura acadêmica (2000-2020). Confluências [Internet]. 2022 Mai-Ago;24(2): p. 126-148. http://dx.doi.org/10.22409/conflu.v24i2.49765
3 Zaluar A. A. Um debate disperso: violência e crime no Brasil da redemocratização. São Paulo Perspectiva [Internet]. Set 1999;13(3): p. 3-17. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0102-88391999000300002
4 Galeano GB, De Souza FM, Guareschi NMF. Violência Estatal no Brasil: ininterrupta, deliberada e letal. Ver. Polis. Psique. [Internet]. 2021;11 Spec No Bodies Cities Hospitality: p. 112-137. https://doi.org/10.22456/2238-152X.107685
5 Bueno S, De Lima RS, Costa ATM. Quando o Estado mata: desafios para medir os crimes contra a vida de autoria de policiais. Sociologias [Internet]. Jan-Apr 2021;56: p. 154-183. https://doi.org/10.1590/15174522-109780
6 De Lima RS. Segurança pública como simulacro de democracia no Brasil. Estudos Avançados [Internet]. May-Aug 2019;33(96): p. 53-68. https://doi.org/10.1590/s0103-4014.2019.3396.0005
7 Ferreira OS. Como abrir a caixa de Pandora?: estratégias metodológicas para o estudo da polícia que mata. Brazilian Journal of Empirical Legal Studies [Internet]. May 2019;6(1): p. 21-43. https://doi.org/10.19092/reed.v6i1.263
8 Fórum Brasileiro de Segurança Pública. 18ed Anuário Brasileiro de Segurança Pública. [Internet]. 18ed. São Paulo, BR: Fórum Brasileiro de Segurança Pública; 2024. 403 p. Available from: https://apidspace.universilab.com.br/server/api/core/bitstreams/80177eeb-4a88-40f6-98f5-c476dea0f3db/content
9 Fórum Brasileiro de Segurança Pública. Fórum Brasileiro de Segurança Pública [Internet]. São Paulo: Fórum Brasileiro de Segurança Pública. [Cited 2024 Jul 29]. Available from: https://forumseguranca.org.br/
10 Monteiro J, Fagundes E, Guerra J. Letalidade policial e criminalidade violenta. Revista de Administração Pública [internet]. Nov-Dez 2020;54(6): p. 1772-1783. https://doi.org/10.1590/0034-761220200061
11 Lonche A. A letalidade da ação policial: parâmetros para análise. TOMO [internet]. Jul-Dez 2010;(17): p. 39-56. https://doi.org/10.21669/tomo.v0i17.507
12 Mohor A, Silva AMA, Aris Á, Forné CS, Correa, CP, Kiefer C et al. Monitor of use of lethal lorce in Latin America and the Caribbean a comparative study of Brazil, Chile, Colombia, El Salvador, Jamaica, Mexico, Peru, Trinidad and Tobago and Venezuela. [place unknown]: Monitor Fuerza Letal; 2024. Avaiable from: https://monitorfuerzaletal.com/docs/MFL2024_Regional_Report.pdf
13 Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatísticas. Portal Cidades [Internet]. [place unknown]: Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatísticas; c2022 [Cited 2024 Jul 29]. Available from: https://www.ibge.gov.br/cidades-e-estados.html
14 Briceno-León R. A violência na Venezuela: renda petroleira e crise política. Cien Saude Colet [internet]. 2006;11 Suppl: p.1223-1233. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1413-81232006000500012
15 Ávila K, Aris A, Vegas R, Da Rocha M. Monitor del uso de la fuerza letal en América Latina y El Caribe Venezuela. [place unknown]: Monitor Fuerza Letal; 2024. Avaiable from: https://monitorfuerzaletal.com/docs/MFL2024_Venezuela.pdf
16 Bueno S, De Lima RS, Teixeira MAC. Police use of deadly force in the state of São Paulo. Cadernos EBAPE.BR [internet]. Nov 2019;11 Spec No: p. 783-799. Portuguese. https://doi.org/10.1590/1679-395177322x
17 Zilli LF, De Figueiredo AM, Da Cruz MVG, Marinho KRL. “Visando repelir injusta agressão”: uma sociologia dos accounts policiais e das investigações dos casos de letalidade policial em Minas Gerais. Sociologias [internet]. 2023; 25: p. 1-39. https://doi.org/10.1590/18070337-118639
18 Sinhoretto J, Schlittler MC, Silvestre G. Juventude e violência policial no Município de São Paulo. Rev. bras. segur. Pública [internet]. Fev-Mar 2016;10(1): p. 10-35. https://doi.org/10.31060/rbsp.2016.v10.n1.590
19 Rigon BS, França LA. As periferias brasileiras como espações de exceção: um genocídio cotidiano pela violência policial. Revista Profanações [internet]. Jul-Dec 2014;1(2): p. 197-218. https://doi.org/10.24302/prof.v1i2.701
20 Godoi R, Grilo CC, Toncje J, Mallart F, Ramachiotti B, De Braund PP. Letalidade policial e respaldo institucional: perfil e processamento dos casos de “resistência seguida de morte” na cidade de São Paulo. Rev. Estud. Soc. [internet]. Jul-Sep 2020;(73): p.58-72. https://doi.org/10.7440/res73.2020.05
21 Nix J, Campbell BA, Bayers EH, Alpert GP. A bird`s eye view of civilians killed by police in 2015. Criminology & Public Policy [internet]. 08 Feb 2017;16(1): p. 309-340. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12269
22 Kogan I, Weibmann M, Dollmann J. Police discrimination and police distrust among ethnic monority adolescentes in Germany. Front Sociol [internet]. 11 Feb 2024;9: p. 1-15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoc.2024.1231774
23 De Angelis RT. Systemic racism in police killings: new evidence from the mapping police violence database, 2013–2021. Race and Justice [internet]. Jul 2024;14(3): p. 413-422. https://doi.org/10.1177/21533687211047943
24 Epp CR, Maynard-Moody S, Haider-Markel D. Beyond profiling: ehe Institucion sources of racial disparities in policing. Public Public Administration Review [internet]. 2017;77(2): p. 168-178. https://doi.org/10.1111/puar.12702
25 Anunciação D, Trad LAB, Ferreira T. “Mão na cabeça!”: abordagem policial, racismo e violência estrutural entre jovens negros de três capitais do Nordeste. Saude Soc [internet]. 2020;29(1): 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0104-12902020190271
26 Sinhoretto J, Morais DS. Violência e racismo: novas faces de uma afinidade reiterada. Ver. Estud. Soc. [internet]. Apr-Jun 2018;64: p. 15-26. https://doi.org/10.7440/res64.2018.02
27 Chevigny PG. Police deadly force as social control: Jamaica, Argentina, and Brazil. Criminal Law Forum [internet]. Mar 1990;1(3): p. 389-425. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01098174
28 Minayo MCS, De Souza ER, Constantino P. Riscos percebidos e vitimização de policiais civis e militares na (in)segurança pública. Cad. Saúde Pública [internet]. Nov 2007;23(11): p. 2767-2779. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0102-311X2007001100024
